“Contemporary standard” English policy and pseudo‐diversity among inner and outer circle assistant language teachers in Japan

Assistant language teachers (ALTs) in the Japan Exchange and Teaching (JET) program are composed of 90% Inner Circle ALTs 10% rigorously screened Outer JET ALTs, who hired under Education Ministry's “contemporary standard” (i.e., American) English policy. Although silent regarding disproportion, Ministry affiliated entities have been celebrating program's “multinational diversity.” Stimulated by this inconsistency aiming to discover other cases, study collects policy statements on role inner/outer circle non-JET ALTs. It examines level consistencies between policymakers’ explicit implicit authorization (e.g., articulate demand for more relative their unspoken acknowledgment those ALTs’ deviation from standard policy). Factors behind double standards ALT-based unbranded policies discussed. Implications Global Englishes research light Asia's Circle-oriented education its discrimination against from/in Asian neighboring countries also presented. 日本のJETプログラムに外国語指導助手として参加している外国青年の90%が欧米英語圏(内部圏)出身であり、残りの10%は厳しく選抜された準英語圏(外部圏)出身者である。両者ともに文部科学省の「現代の標準的な発音」教育政策の元、採用されている。ただし、この出身圏の偏りについて言及しないまま、文部科学省や関連団体はプログラム参加者の多様性を強調している。この点に着目し、本稿ではまず上記の二グループに加え、JETプログラムの枠外で採用されている外国語指導助手に関する資料や二次データを収集した。その上で、この三グループの採用・雇用状況が「現代の標準的な発音」教育政策とどの程度合致しているのか、という点を分析した。その結果を踏まえ、JETプログラム外国語指導助手による「標準英語」教育方針とそうではないタイプの教育方針を共存させている文部科学省によるダブルスタンダードとその背景について議論を行った。最後に、アジア圏で実施されている「標準英語」志向の英語教育政策とそうした政策が内在する差別問題について、グローバル英語研究の視点から今後の展望を提示した。 Many researchers practitioners around world advocating that acquisition “standard” or pronunciation is not an absolute requirement young people's successful communication with people diverse backgrounds Canilao, 2019; Hino, 2012; Kirkpatrick, 2007; Kobayashi, 2017). “an inclusive paradigm all shared ideologies” unites interrelated fields, namely, as International Language Research, World research, a Lingua Franca which “have endeavours change perceptions users what is, owns it how should be used” (Rose & Galloway, 2019, pp. 11–13). Nonetheless, preference American British invariably materialized native English-speaking (NESTs)' employment programs launched East regions. NESTs commonly defined based skin color speaker status/nationality (Braine, 2010; Holliday, 2009; 2007, 2014; Llurda, 2004). countries’ deployment classes at local schools started Programme (1987) (MEXT/MIC/MFA/CLAIR, July 5, 2002). This managed Department Management Council Local Authorities Relations (CLAIR) collaboration Education, Culture, Sports, Science Technology (MEXT), Internal Affairs Communications (MIC), Foreign (MFA) (CLAIR, Organisations). The was then followed Program Korea (EPIK) (1995), Native-speaking Teacher Scheme Hong Kong (1998), Teachers Taiwan (2004), later replaced 2021 (Copland, Garton, et al., 2016; Wang Tzu-Bin, 2013) (see respective websites). governments’ implementation designed West augmented dominant view Asia beyond United States Kingdom centers world's most innovative education. Addressing centuries-old yet evolving obsession West, Phan (2017) argues that, sake own educational legitimacy identity construction, modernized independent needs branding than ever, thus capitalizing Western academic institutions’ medium offshore campuses Asia: “the interdependent relationships ‘the West’, rise Asia’, language, commercialisation higher generated fertile space subtle ‘Western dominance’ open desire affiliating West’ celebrated ‘Asian century’” (p. 223). Referring (2017), Kubota (2020) “Asia's complex West,” claiming “underlying today's dominance contradictory existence Orientalist Occidentalist desires non-Western world” (pp. 724–725). expatriate can reap unmatched favors communities where idealized deeply ingrained locals’ frames values judgment. One ALT quoted saying: “Being born white, male American, it's like hitting lottery, global sense. [….] I am being paid better full-time teacher America. 10,000 dollars only assistant” (Miyazato, 2009, p. 46). seemingly celebratory observed pioneering eligibility applicants, used confined Anglophones but no longer case. Its official website stipulates application submitted residing “English-speaking (United States, Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, Canada, Ireland, South Africa, Philippines, Singapore, Jamaica, Barbados, Trinidad, Tobago)” Eligibility). In regard, Japan's fares Korea's EPIK applicants Anglophone Africa. Furthermore, 2013, government's Advisory Panel issued proposals remedy enhance education, stating improvement skills international common vitally important future Japan” (Advisory September 26, 2013). same year, government unveiled seven-page long reform plan, further nationwide both identified “indispensable” (MEXT, December 13, 4). While recognizing importance teaching line contribution, has maintained English-oriented stance “it teach so-called pronunciation” (Monbusho, 1989, 47–48) ground enables Japanese students communicate people” 2017, 30). A question arises here, extent implemented conjunction 4)? present addresses theme (in)congruence practice among guided existing literature field planning (LPP) critically scrutinizes gap (Ricento, 2006; Tollefson Pérez-Milans, 2018) conducting critical discourse analysis (Tollefson, 2006). Previous studies suggest significance such inquiry revealing discussing even if framed discourses globalization internationalization, never intended cultivate nationals working (Gottlieb, Hashimoto, 2011; Kubota, 1998, 2002; Liddicoat, 2007). Instead, argued inculcate sense “Japaneseness” into pupils’ mindset reproducing nationalistic inherently alien uniqueness Japaneseness, implicating fluent English, returnees deficient (Hashimoto, 1998; Yoshino, On hand, these discussions were produced time when glorified strong economy coexisted infamously poor From 1970s early 2000s, second largest could afford proclaim revitalization without correlating need bilingual pupils (already globally top-level) economic competitiveness (Kobayashi, Indeed, oft-cited history (McConnell, 2000) revealed back Tokyo's effort alleviate White House's frustration over escalating trade deficit superpower loss domestic jobs. By inviting youth fresh out college assistant having them return home ample savings happy memories, aspired project image peace-loving country world, one destroying job market dumping “Made-in-Japan” products. However, “good old days” already thing past, dispute 80s 90s displaced US—China rivalry. declining criticism lucrative program. budget review panel once placed costly “on chopping block,” reflecting national sentiment nothing “a relic go-go days bubble-economy years, any half-baked idea get funding had word ‘kokusaika’ [internationalization] attached it” (Nakamura, 27, 2010). More recently, scholar called discontinuation injected 30 billion yen tax money “non-qualified ALTs”(Fujiwara, 18, Despite criticisms, terminated. Faced China economies losing region, advised invest revive decrepit economy: “Japan's aim cultivation ‘top-class’ proficiency countries” well-paid low-paid At moment, found take account dimension impact foreign formal Bruthiaux (2008) suggests reluctance many applied linguists consider globalization,” “limit contribution might make key contemporary debate” 20). Citing concurring Bruthiaux, Block “there lack theoretical work meant political linguistics” 33). To fill void, analyzes secondary materials statistics factoring ideologically driven issues applicants’ nationality-based English-speaker status) ones wages). Primarily due limitations space, focuses context excluding elementary introduction state transition turmoil, finding themselves adequate qualifications 1, 2021, Another limitation stemming constraints exclusion pertinent teachers’ supposed leadership “assistant” teachers, unaddressed documents MEXT, 2019). garner publicly accessible policies, mainly utilizes Internet, while reviewing readily available bookstores “Course Study Guidelines” education). National Diet Library's digital services employed searching historical documents. constitute large portion data obtained websites publications CLAIR manages For example, wide range related host challenges, conducted survey public elementary, junior high, high since 2013 reported array findings school students’ 3–5) schools’ commitment utilizing implementing on-the-job training 23–24). Most cited herein originally written Japanese, author translated referring ministries, Law Translation, “is operated Justice provides translations laws regulations” (https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/). How aligned policy? caveat collection, partially coincided prolonged COVID-19 pandemic, there growing discussion new-normal online learning. Thus, non-JET, non-ALT instructors Philippines presented supplementary report issue (in)compatibility Finally, aware major researchers’ interpretations textual can, bound “pretextually motivated” (Widdowson, 2004, 110). address limitation, strived go texts identifying described, weighing policymakers proclaiming texts. approach instrumental which, irrespective contexts, often tatemae announced mission honne hidden true motive (Collier Hernandez, 2021). When suggested silence about division practice, additional collection confirm absence responses. interim Filipino dispatched search performed employing specific keywords “Filipinos + non-JET” English. term, four decades after specifically 1977 (Table 1). Introduced 1958, original term reflection sovereignty reinstated 7 years before, 1951 signing San Francisco Peace Treaty occupied Allied Powers. deletion phrase “British American” corresponds start two invitation teachers. chronological coincidence implies reduced pronunciation,” because equated speakers either Americans nationals, rendering unnecessary redundant. Contemporary ↓ up revised 1977, though participating expanding launch 1987, Zealand). Ostensibly, sets boundary nations now larger number list ordered year participation, case recent join 2014, listed immediately Rather, starts countries, ones, implying tacit priority given former particularly, States. utmost particular, pronounced terms ratio nationality. Produced Participating Countries), Table 2 shows remain dominated comprising majority (over 60%). Even taking fact third populated (330 million) account, does mention marked displays graph participants (1987–2019) along descriptive proof “significant growth”: “Since inception, seen significant growth, 848 4 5761 57 (as 2019)” History). makes reference disproportionate presence Such compatible abiding model Japan: officially articulated position accords understanding top-priority basis ability produce unconditionally best “communicate serve ideal learners. explain why required experience qualifications, they excellent pronunciation, rhythm, intonation language” (JET USA, Eligibility criteria). my interview last month, asked coordinator q&a he told friend his JHS [junior school] him deliver speaking accent. He said wanted learn would useful. accent anyway so she problem she'd heard similar things. respondents, current replied positioned dialect: “I inaka [rural area]. don't accent, however do emphasise ‘dialect/accent’ just Osaka/Kansai-ben.” Overall, CLAIR, non-existent assumption disproportion matter course, concern. Republic designates language. Moreover, sending received evaluation. Based facts, we process adding 2014. We add proceed premise vigilant rigorous thoroughly 27). Similarly, Sugimoto Yamamoto (2019) describe selection committee administers screening send well-qualified Filipinos. required, must following background shortlisted next stage: (1) TESOL), (2) BA earned (3) experience. Applicants’ checked evaluated three stages: essay writing, oral interviews, mock teaching. 16 17 participated taught preschool university (Fermin, 2020). These highly qualified recognized develop professional identity: “my informants JTEs [Japanese English] refer ‘native speakers,’ made feel unqualified merely Filipinos” 2020, 322). Their pride stems “receiving pay colleagues program.” contrast stringently known “inexperienced qualifications” Mann, 2016, 7) obtain Japan, Asia, Braine, Copland, CALIR describes “major feature” “ability invite talented country, hiring criterion” 26). There organization call “throughly rigourous proficiency” and, “applicants country.” likely cause incongruity organization's taken-for-granted distinction applicants. Now 28th gained acclaim domestically internationally advancing mutual exchange programs. welcomed 4,372 participants, currently, approximately 55,000 alumni 60 living parts world. As earlier, accentuates growth” expansion encouraging “local municipalities facilitate use multinational 27), endorsing limited secure embodied highest proportion different requirements Nevertheless, neither government, Ministry, nor perceived such, notion diversity conceived increasing renders representation unaffected. complicated, diversified, shown 3, percentage 50% least exceeding 30%. struggling shrinking population financial resources recourse lower cost part-time workers. According Sapporo General Union, established union trouble, whereas 3 million yen, earn 1 less (Sapporo 14, Admittedly, include “fall love want leave exhausting our contracts” “seek by, “becoming direct-hire school,” stated Tokyo Wiki, resource JETs Tokyo” (Tokyo Wiki). Non-JET particular salary still attractive post-JET aspire continue (Sugimoto Yamamoto, Filipinos seek positions neighborhood community (Stewart, 2020), sheer fourth residents group (N = 277,341) (Immigration Services Agency October 15, plus side, sizable compensates small nations. contributes entertainers. 80s, economically robust popular destination women who, (un)willingly (il)legally, worked entertainers dancers night clubs, came represent “Filipinos” minds 34). involving 18 Balgoa “feel empowered” because, according Lourd (a Philippines), “at helpers” 259). her “very fulfilling,” witnessing students” “can answer questions right away beginning class,” “makes me I'm effective” 84–85). recruitment generates opportunities entitled aforementioned graduate (Balgoa, 258). 15 parents harbor reservations 193). Cases correcting commanding talk front 261) reported. fundamental recruited directly municipal bodies, through commercial recruitment/outsourcing agencies, provided little orientation seminars, institutional assistance assigned system prevails serves interests financially distressed overworked struggle preparation classes, let alone assist acclimated workplace. occupation “black companies” sweat-shop exploit employees point death overtime karoushi (Japan Today, remained apprehensive issue, accounts acquiring corresponding 3) 18). comments 2005. administration abovementioned plan promotes issue. “English globalization” underlies across words, private companies precarious conditions employment, remains latter subject policy, ineligible proper status. raises endorses subsequent subsection question, addressing promotion another type non-traditional time, Philippines. addition real classrooms, incorporated classes. certainly prior occurred frequently during ongoing situation. 70-page booklet utilization information technology (ICT) total 10 implement mentioned 54). book comprise remark non-ALTs accordance indicate knowledge about, recognition of, plight low-waged “discounted” “gig workers” “face enormous pressure please clients” (Panaligan Curran, 2022, 250). states providing equal “educational contact daily basis” 3): ICT understood “tool resolve inequality basis, regional family environments,” “guarantee learning temporary closures natural disasters” 3). annual problem-ridden awareness reporting 20 designated cities Tokyo, Osaka), exhibit tend minding families, schools, regions, attempting redress division, may applying one, ALTs-based sound municipalities, other, and/or rural areas low-paid, primary resources. tentative discussion, warrants exists adherence despite vulnerable contract workers’ access pre-service training. Attending policy's acceptance diversity” realized increase leaves intact, motivated ideological factors. grandiose competitiveness, linguistics takes (Bruthiaux, 2008, 20) increasing. deserve scrutiny education's differently denied submit applications. They attention within domain exposed risk exploitation vulnerability amid pervasiveness norms practice. Meanwhile, detached hierarchy raised study. university-based members very entangled US UK dominance, implicated sustaining engaging “internationally” high-impact activities precisely situated peripheral non-Anglophone (Kubota, 2020; Phan, community's “shared 11–13) entail roles shaped constitutes “actual ‘real world’ problems general inter-related” (Aims scope Journal Applied Linguistics). attempt contribute InJAL scholarship community, hopes construed context-specific description manifestation concerns reform-resistant contexts are, however, inevitably constructed interactions global. peer article https://www.webofscience.com/api/gateway/wos/peer-review/10.1111/ijal.12464 Data sharing applicable datasets analyzed